Changing Food Habits in India: Health, Culture, and Climate Impacts

Executive summary (2 minutes)

Indian diets are changing fast. Urbanisation, rising incomes, time-poverty, food delivery apps, and aggressive marketing of packaged foods are reshaping what we eat and how we eat. The result is a “double burden”: continued micronutrient deficiencies (especially anaemia) alongside rising obesity, hypertension and diabetes. National surveys and medical studies confirm these trends: anaemia remains very high, overweight and obesity have risen sharply, and more than 100 million Indians are living with diabetes. PubMed

Culture still matters—vegetarianism remains common and fasting practices persist—but preferences are shifting, especially in cities. Consumption data and platform reports suggest growth in poultry, dairy, processed snacks, and edible oils. At the same time, public policy is nudging diets toward fortification, millets, safer food environments, and front-of-pack nutrition labelling (FoPNL). Press Information Bureau Demographic and Health Surveys

What we eat also shapes the environment. India’s food system contributes substantially to methane and nitrous oxide emissions (from rice and livestock), draws heavily on water (especially for rice and sugar), and generates avoidable waste (households discard ~55 kg of food per person per year). Switching some staples, cutting waste, and improving how we produce and procure food can lower emissions and build resilience without compromising nutrition. UNFCCC The New Indian Express

This article explains the transitions underway, their health, cultural and climate dimensions, and what government, industry, communities and households can do next.

1) The Indian diet in transition

1.1 From grain-heavy plates to protein, fats and convenience

For decades, Indian diets have been cereal-heavy and calorie-sufficient but micronutrient-poor. The “What India Eats”study by ICMR-NIN shows actual intakes skewed toward cereals with inadequate fruits, vegetables and diverse proteins relative to NIN’s “My Plate” guidance. The 2024 Dietary Guidelines for Indians (DGI) urge diversity across at least 8 food groups daily, with half the plate from vegetables and fruits and limits on foods high in fat, salt and sugar. ICMR National Institute of Nutrition+2ICMR National Institute of Nutrition+2

A newer consumption picture from the Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) 2022–24 indicates long-run shifts: the budget share of cereals is falling, while milk, fruit, processed foods and eating-out have grown—classic signs of a nutrition transition as incomes rise and households value convenience. Press Information Bureau

Edible oil intake has risen markedly. A 2024 NITI Aayog paper tracks per-capita edible oil consumption climbing across decades and projects further increases without policy and behaviour change. NITI Aayog

Food delivery and QSRs amplify these shifts. Platform round-ups show soaring late-night ordering, more snacking, and frequent indulgences—especially in metros—reflecting time-poverty, small households, and changing socialising patterns. (These reports are corporate snapshots rather than official statistics, but they illustrate strong urban trends.) ICMR National Institute of Nutrition

1.2 Regional and Cultural Anchors

India’s food habits vary dramatically:

Northwest: wheat and dairy dominate.
South: rice, millets, and sambar-based meals.
East: rice and fish.
Northeast: diverse meats and fermentation traditions.

Religious norms shape vegetarianism—Pew Research (2021) found about 40% of Indians identify as vegetarian, though shares vary widely. Surveys suggest vegetarianism has declined modestly in urban areas as poultry and eggs expand.

1.3 Affordability and inequality

Diet quality is constrained by affordability. The 2024 UN SOFI report estimated about 55.6% of Indians could not afford a healthy diet—a stark reminder that price, access, and knowledge limit the uptake of healthier options even when people want them. UNICEF DATA Down To Earth

1.4 – Household Expenditure on Food

Historical NSSO and HCES data: share of food in household consumption fell from ~55–60% in the 1970s to ~46% in 2011–12, and further down in HCES 2022–24 (~46% rural, ~39% urban).
Regional patterns: Eastern India still spends a larger share on cereals; Southern and Western regions allocate more to milk, fruits, processed foods.
Urban households spend a much higher share on “eating out” and processed items, while rural still leans heavily on cereals.
Absolute rupee expenditure has risen steadily, but relative share is falling as incomes grow.

1.5 – Affordability and Adequacy of Food

Add FAO/UN SOFI estimate: ~55.6% of Indians cannot afford a healthy diet (2021–23).
Calorie adequacy: rural calorie intake has actually fallen in many states (linked to reduced physical activity and diet diversification), but protein adequacy improved somewhat via milk and eggs.
Regional inequality: calorie consumption lowest in Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand; highest in Kerala, Punjab.
Urban diets more adequate in protein and fat, but micronutrient adequacy still poor across both.
Trend: affordability improved between 1990s and early 2010s, but slowed recently due to food inflation.

2) Health impacts: the double burden grows

2.1 Micronutrient deficiencies persist

The NFHS-5 (2019–21) shows anaemia is widespread: a majority of women aged 15–49 are anaemic; anaemia is also very common among young children. Despite gains in coverage of schemes and fortification, the micronutrient gap remains a major public health challenge.

2.2 Overweight, obesity, hypertension and diabetes are rising

NFHS-5 reported a sharp rise in overweight/obesity among adults (roughly one in four men and women), with clear urban and wealth gradients. The ICMR-INDIAB 2023 national study in NEJM estimated ~101 million Indians have diabetes (11.4% prevalence), alongside very high burdens of hypertension (~35%) and generalised obesity—all consistent with diet and lifestyle shifts. Demographic and Health Surveys PubMed

Salt intake is well above WHO’s 5 g/day recommendation; meta-analyses place Indian consumption near 10–11 g/day, raising cardiovascular risk. The 2024 DGI explicitly advises limiting salt and avoiding ultra-processed foods. Indian Journal of Medical Research ICMR National Institute of Nutrition

2.3 What’s driving the health shift?

Energy-dense foods: Greater availability and marketing of shelf-stable snacks, instant foods, and sugary beverages.
Edible oils: Per-capita consumption has surged, intensifying calorie density of meals. NITI Aayog
Meal timing & snacking: Longer commutes and work hours push late eating; food apps facilitate on-demand indulgence. ICMR National Institute of Nutrition
Diet monotony: Insufficient vegetables, fruits and varied proteins relative to NIN guidance. ICMR National Institute of Nutrition

3) Culture, vegetarianism and protein politics

3.1 Vegetarian, non-vegetarian and “flexitarian” India

India has one of the world’s lowest per-capita meat intakes—orders of magnitude below high-income countries—but consumption is gradually increasing, particularly poultry. Data compilations show India at the low end globally for meat supply per person, and OWID visualisations put India’s per-capita meat intake far below global averages. Cultural norms and affordability largely explain the gap. Statista Our World in Data

Dairy remains central—per-capita milk availability has climbed to ~459 g/day in 2022–23—reflecting India’s dairy-led protein strategy; but dairy also carries climate and health trade-offs discussed below.

3.2 Eggs in public nutrition: a live debate

The PM POSHAN (mid-day meal) guidelines allow states to include eggs (or alternative proteins). Several states have expanded egg distribution, citing evidence on cost-effective protein and micronutrients; others have resisted on cultural grounds or budget pressures. Recent reportage documents policy swings, with NGOs sometimes stepping in to fund eggs where state support falters. PM Poshan Azim Premji University Publications The Times of India

3.3 Religion, fasting and feast cycles

Fasting days, temple foods, community feasts, and festival seasons continue to shape cyclical consumption—often increasing sweets, deep-fried snacks, and refined grains in specific periods. Policy messaging must therefore be culturally sensitive: “how” to cook (less oil, less salt, safer fats) is often as important as “what” to cook.

4) The policy environment: what’s changing and why

4.1 Updated dietary guidance and Eat Right India

The ICMR-NIN 2024 Dietary Guidelines consolidate evidence into 17 easy-to-follow rules (diversify meals, emphasise vegetables/fruit, prefer whole grains and millets, limit salt/sugar/fat, choose safer oils, read labels, practise hygiene). FSSAI’s Eat Right India ecosystem aligns with this push: safer restaurants, fortified staples, trans-fat elimination, and institutional “Eat Right Campus” certifications. India has implemented a 2% limit on industrial trans fats, moving toward elimination in processed foods and eateries. ICMR National Institute of Nutrition Demographic and Health Surveys

4.2 Front-of-Pack Nutrition Labelling (FoPNL)

FSSAI has proposed an Indian Nutrition Rating (INR) star system to flag overall healthfulness on the front of packs. While still evolving, FoPNL is expected to nudge reformulation and consumer awareness, complementing advertising and claims regulations. Demographic and Health Surveys

4.3 Millets mainstreaming

The International Year of Millets (2023) turbocharged millet promotion for PDS, school meals, and ICDS/Poshan menus. Evidence from ICRISAT indicates millets are more climate-resilient and water-efficient than rice and wheat, with strong micronutrient profiles—iron, calcium, fibre—making them potent tools against anaemia and metabolic disease risks when adopted judiciously.

4.4 Price volatility and edible oils

India remains heavily import-dependent for edible oils. Recent trade shifts—record sunflower oil imports at times, changing palm oil share—underline why any health push must consider price, availability and culinary traditions. Reuters+1

5) Climate and environmental impacts of changing diets

5.1 Agriculture’s footprint

India’s AFOLU (agriculture, forestry and land use) and farm electricity together accounted for ~22–23% of the national greenhouse-gas inventory in recent estimates. Within agriculture, methane from rice paddies and enteric fermentation in livestock are major sources. CEEW UNFCCC

Global and India-focused studies converge on a simple idea: diet composition matters for emissions. Red meat is the most carbon-intensive; poultry and eggs are lower; plant-dominant meals are generally lowest. India-specific LCA work indicates non-vegetarian meals—especially those with mutton—can emit ~1.5–1.8× a comparable vegetarian meal, while rice cultivation and dairy recommendations carry notable footprints. (Absolute numbers vary by region and production system, but the relative pattern is robust.) ResearchGate Mongabay-India

5.2 Water and land

Rice and sugarcane are water-hungry; millets and many pulses are thriftier. Re-balancing some acreage and diversifying staples, especially in water-stressed regions, can reduce vulnerability to droughts and heatwaves. (ICRISAT and allied institutes have extensive, region-specific guidance on yields, water needs and nutrition.)

5.3 Food waste: a big, fixable lever

The UNEP Food Waste Index 2024 estimates Indian households waste ~55 kg per person per year—below the global average but still enormous in aggregate given our population. Reductions here have instant climate, water and economic dividends; about 60% of global food waste is at the household level. The New Indian Express BioCycle

6) Ten shifts to make Indian diets healthier and greener—without losing culture

Half-plate produce
Follow NIN’s plate: load vegetables and fruit (at least 400 g/day) and a mix of legumes, pulses and nuts for protein and fibre; keep refined grains in check. ICMR National Institute of Nutrition
Protein diversity, culturally
Where acceptable, rotate pulses, dairy, eggs, and modest poultry/fish. In vegetarian homes, combine cereals and pulses (e.g., rice + dal, roti + chana), add peanuts or sesame, and include fermented dairy for quality protein and calcium. ICMR National Institute of Nutrition
Millets on weekdays
Introduce jowar/bajra/ragi rotis or porridge a few times a week. Start with blends to ease taste transitions. Public institutions (hostels, canteens) can normalise millet offerings.
Oils: amount and type
Treat oil as a condiment, not an ingredient. If deep-frying, do it less often. Prefer home-blends over single oils to balance fatty-acid profiles; avoid reheating oil. ICMR National Institute of Nutrition
Salt and sugar
Cook with less salt; keep pickle/papad portions small; taste before salting. Swap sugary beverages for water, buttermilk, lemon water without added sugar. India’s average salt intake is roughly double the WHO limit—small cuts pay big health dividends. Indian Journal of Medical Research
Read the label
Use FoPNL/INR stars (as they roll out) and ingredients lists to spot added sugar, sodium, and trans-fat. Look for FSSAI marks and fortification logos (e.g., iron-fortified staples). Demographic and Health Surveys
Smart snacking
Keep roasted chana, sprouts, fruits, curd at hand to avoid ultra-processed snacks. Office/campus vending can shift assortments. (Eat Right Campus certifications help.) Demographic and Health Surveys
Kitchen skills and time hacks
Batch-cook, pre-cut vegetables, use pressure cookers/OTG/air-fryers to reduce oil. These habits counter the “I’m too busy to cook” drift to ready-to-eat.
Waste less, save more
Plan menus, portion right, use leftovers creatively, and store food correctly. Household waste is ~55 kg per person yearly—downsize plates and “buy one get one” traps. The New Indian Express
Celebrate culture, update technique
Keep traditional recipes but modernise techniques (steam, bake, quick-sauté) and tweak ingredients (millets for part of the grain, add greens to batters).

7) What government and industry can do next

7.1 Government (Union & States)

Scale the “Eat Right” ecosystem: faster roll-out of FoPNL, stronger enforcement against misleading claims, continued vigilance on industrial trans-fats. Demographic and Health Surveys
Public procurement that shapes markets: include millets, pulses, eggs (or locally acceptable protein alternatives) in PM POSHAN/ICDS menus, with budget protection against food inflation. PM Poshan
Diet diversity in PDS: expand pulses and coarse cereals in subsidised baskets; enable state-level pilots for fresh produce vouchers in urban slums.
Salt and sugar reduction targets: voluntary reformulation targets (then mandatory if needed), public campaigns, and fiscal nudges. Indian Journal of Medical Research
Food waste action plans: standardise municipal measurement, support community fridges and surplus redistribution, and integrate waste reduction in Swachh Bharat II. UNEP – UN Environment Programme

7.2 Industry (food, retail, hospitality, platforms)

Reformulate & resize: cut sodium/sugar in snacks and beverages; create smaller packs to reduce overconsumption.
Millet-ready ranges: ready batters, mixes and snacks that make millets easy and tasty.
Transparent menus and defaults: apps and QSRs can display calories/salt and offer healthier default sides.
Cold-chain and procurement: invest upstream in fruits/vegetables/pulses logistics; stable farmer contracts for seasonal diversity.
Food-waste analytics: kitchens and platforms can track plate waste and shrink it with menu engineering and AI forecasting. BioCycle

7.3 Cities and communities

Healthy-canteen standards in government offices, schools, hospitals.
Ward-level kitchen gardens and urban farming for greens and herbs.
Festival food safety and portion campaigns to keep traditions joyful but healthier.

8) Business and investment angles

Millets value chain: seeds, agronomy advisory, processing tech (decortication, flours, RTE), branding and exports. Policy tailwinds after IYM-2023 continue.
Low-salt/spice-forward products for Indian palates that meet DGI guidance. ICMR National Institute of Nutrition
Alt-protein and dairy efficiency: plant-based convenience foods designed for Indian recipes; productivity upgrades in dairy to lower methane per litre (better feed, genetics, manure management). AP News
Cold-chain for perishables: fruits/veg, fish/poultry—lower losses and improve affordability of healthy diets.
Food-waste tech: inventory optimisation for hotels/QSRs, resale/redistribution platforms, composting/biogas at ward level. UNEP – UN Environment Programme

9) Climate-smart eating for India: practical swaps

Rice → part-millet rotation a few days/week (e.g., ragi mudde, bajra roti, jowar bhakri).
Mutton → poultry/fish or pulses in curries; paneer → tofu/chana occasionally for variety.
Deep-fried snacks → roasted/steamed versions; sweetened beverages → water/chaas/nimbu pani (unsweetened).
Refined flour → whole wheat/millet blends; polished rice → parboiled/brown or portion-controlled polished.
Large plates → smaller plates (it works!).

These swaps lower salt/sugar/fat while nudging down the dietary carbon footprint—especially when meats shift from ruminants to poultry/fish and plant proteins expand. Global syntheses and India-specific LCAs support the broad direction, even though exact footprints depend on sourcing and cooking. Nature ResearchGate

10) What success looks like by 2030

Anaemia down sharply through diverse diets plus fortification (iron, folate, B12).
Slower growth in obesity, hypertension and diabetes thanks to salt/sugar reduction and active living. PubMed Indian Journal of Medical Research
Millets mainstreamed in midday meals, hostels and canteens; PDS baskets diversified across states.
Household food waste trimmed meaningfully below current ~55 kg/person/year. The New Indian Express
Food industry portfolios rebalanced toward better-for-you SKUs, with FoPNL driving reformulation. Demographic and Health Surveys
Edible-oil dependence reduced via domestic oilseeds and consumer moderation; price shocks less damaging to diets. NITI Aayog

11) A note on measurement and evidence

National surveys (NFHS-5; HCES 2022–24) give strong signals but lag fast-moving trends. Press Information Bureau
Platform and industry reports (Swiggy/Zomato, trade associations) are useful for urban behaviour but are not substitutes for official data. ICMR National Institute of Nutrition
Health studies (ICMR-INDIAB; salt intake reviews) provide risk markers that should guide food policy and marketing restrictions. PubMed Indian Journal of Medical Research
Climate numbers vary by method and boundary; rely on directionally consistent findings (e.g., millets vs rice water use; ruminant meat vs pulses footprints).

12) Glossary

AFOLU: Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use—emissions sector classification used in national inventories. UNFCCC
Anaemia: Low haemoglobin levels; in India, commonly due to iron deficiency, but vitamin B12 and folate play roles too.
DGI (Dietary Guidelines for Indians): ICMR-NIN’s 2024 guidance on healthy eating patterns. ICMR National Institute of Nutrition
Eat Right India: FSSAI’s flagship movement for safe, healthy and sustainable food—includes Eat Right Schools/Campus/Places. Demographic and Health Surveys
FoPNL (Front-of-Pack Nutrition Labelling): Simple labels (stars/warnings) on packaged foods signalling overall healthfulness or high nutrients of concern. Demographic and Health Surveys
HCES: Household Consumption Expenditure Survey, the periodic NSS exercise that tracks what households spend on food and non-food. Press Information Bureau
ICMR-INDIAB: Large national study of diabetes and related risks. PubMed
Millets: Climate-resilient small-seeded cereals (ragi, jowar, bajra, kodo, etc.) with strong micronutrient and fibre profiles.
PM POSHAN: The national mid-day meal programme for schoolchildren, with nutrition guidelines (eggs or alternatives as per state choice). PM Poshan
Ultra-processed foods (UPFs): Industrial formulations with additives, emulsifiers, colours; typically energy-dense, high in salt/sugar/fat, low in fibre. world.hey.com

13) References (selected)

Health & diets: NFHS-5 facts, over-nutrition/anaemia trends; ICMR-INDIAB (NEJM 2023); salt intake meta-analyses; DGI 2024; “What India Eats.” PubMed Indian Journal of Medical Research ICMR National Institute of Nutrition+1
Consumption trends: HCES 2022–24 highlights; edible oil consumption projections; platform behaviour reports. Press Information Bureau NITI Aayog ICMR National Institute of Nutrition
Culture & vegetarianism: Pew Research on food and religion; WEF synthesis on vegetarianism trends. World Economic Forum
Policy & regulation: FSSAI Eat Right India; trans-fat elimination; FoPNL proposal status. Demographic and Health Surveys
Climate & environment: India’s BUR-4; CEEW summaries; ICRISAT on millets; UNEP Food Waste Index 2024. UNFCCC CEEW The New Indian Express
Trade/price context: Reuters coverage of sunflower/palm oil import shifts. Reuters+1

14) Closing thought

India can absolutely eat its way to better health and climate resilience without losing culinary identity. The playbook is not exotic: more vegetables and pulses, smarter oils and salt, a bit more millet and a bit less waste, clearer labels, and public plates (schools, offices, canteens) that make the healthy choice the easy choice. The culture is already rich; policy and markets now need to make it convenient, affordable and tasty—every single day.

Table A — Affordability of a Healthy Diet (SOFI 2024 snapshot)

Note: Share of population unable to afford a healthy diet as per SOFI 2024 (latest available year ≈ 2022). Figures are indicative for quick reference; confirm exact figures from SOFI 2024 for publication.

Country/Region	Year	Share unable to afford a healthy diet (%)
India	2022 (SOFI 2024)	55.6

Source: FAO/IFAD/UNICEF/WFP/WHO, State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World (SOFI) 2024.

Table B — Changing Share of Food Items in Household Expenditure (%)

Note: Shares are indicative consolidations aligned with broad NSSO (1972–73, 2011–12) and HCES 2022–24 patterns. They are provided for communication/visualisation and may not match any single official table exactly. Please replace with official series if you are publishing precise statistics.

Category	1972–73	2011–12	2022–24 (HCES)
Cereals	50	15	12
Pulses	10	7	8
Milk & Dairy	8	14	15
Eggs/Meat/Fish	2	6	10
Fruits & Vegetables	15	20	20
Edible Oils	5	10	11
Processed & Eating-out	2	15	20
Other Food Items	8	13	4

Source: NSSO Consumption Rounds; HCES 2022–24; compiled for illustration.

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