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Rural Roads and BharatNet: The Backbone of Rural Transformation

 

A comprehensive article – Amulya Charan/November 2025

The twin pillars of connectivity—physical (roads) and digital (broadband) infrastructure—are increasingly recognised as the backbone of rural transformation in India. In this article, we examine how rural roads (principally under the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana or PMGSY) and broadband connectivity via the BharatNet programme together unlock the potential of rural India, the challenges faced, lessons from other countries, and what needs to be done to fully realise the transformation. We also compare India’s journey with large developing and developed economies, drawing lessons for India’s next phase of rural infrastructure build-out.

1. Introduction

Rural India accounts for a large share of the country’s population, livelihoods, and social needs. Connectivity—whether a farmer reaching the nearest market, a student attending digital classes, or a health clinic accessing telemedicine—is critical. While physical roads have been foundational in enabling access and mobility, digital connectivity is emerging as the next frontier of infrastructure inclusion.

In combination, rural roads and broadband connectivity constitute a twin‐engine that can power rural socio-economic transformation. Roads bring people, goods, services and markets closer; broadband brings information, services, financial inclusion, remote learning and health care within reach. Together, they bridge the rural-urban gap in access, opportunity and mobility.

In India, two flagship programmes are central to this endeavour:

  • The PMGSY, launched in 2000 to provide all-weather road connectivity to rural habitations.
  • The BharatNet project, started in 2011/12 (originally as NOFN) to provide high-speed broadband connectivity (via optical fibre, wireless and satellite) to Gram Panchayats and villages.

In this article, we analyse how each of these contributes, and then how their synergy can accelerate rural transformation.

2. Rural Roads: Foundations of Rural Mobility and Growth

2.1 The PMGSY programme – background and evolution

The PMGSY was launched on 25 December 2000 with the objective of providing all-weather road connectivity to rural habitations across India. Press Information Bureau+2IMPRI Institute+2 The scheme aimed first to connect habitations above a certain population threshold (in the plains, population over 500; in hilly/tribal/desert regions, population over 250) by the creation of a single all-weather road linking the habitation to the nearest road network. IMPRI Institute

Over time, the programme evolved through phases:

  • PMGSY-I (2000 onward): New connectivity to habitations previously unconnected.
  • PMGSY-II (2013 onward): Strengthening and up-gradation of existing rural roads and enhancing the rural road network so that mobility is improved. IMPRI Institute
  • PMGSY-III (2019 onward): Consolidation of through‐routes and links to markets, higher secondary schools, hospitals. Press Information Bureau
  • PMGSY-IV (approved September 2024): Targeting remaining unconnected habitations (approx. 25,000) via about 62,500 km of road during FY 2024-25 to 2028-29. Press Information Bureau+1

As of August 2025, sanctioned works under PMGSY cover 1,91,282 rural roads covering 8,38,611 km and 12,146 bridges. Out of these, 1,83,215 roads covering 7,83,727 km and 9,891 bridges have already been completed. Press Information Bureau

2.2 Impact of rural roads – evidence and insights

There is growing evidence from India and elsewhere of the positive impact of rural roads on economic and social outcomes.

  • A recent study (“Rural roads and economic development: Insights from India”) finds that new rural roads under PMGSY have a positive effect on per capita agriculture GDP growth. ScienceDirect
  • Another study looked at access to health care: improved rural road connectivity under PMGSY-II was associated with better antenatal care, increased vehicle transport to health facilities, and improved access to care. THE INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS REVIEW
  • Roads are also found to correlate with reduced crime (via better lighting, bus services, higher employment) in rural India. arXiv
  • According to a policy insight summary, PMGSY roads have generated stronger economic growth, improved social indicators and connectivity. IMPRI Institute

2.3 The mechanisms of impact

What are the channels via which rural roads contribute to transformation? Some of the key pathways are:

  • Market access: Improved connectivity enables farmers and producers in villages to access markets—both local and regional—more easily, reducing travel time and transport cost.
  • Mobility of labour: Rural roads make it easier for people to travel for work, whether local non-farm jobs or commuting to nearby towns.
  • Access to services: Health care, education, banking, government services often cluster in towns or hubs. Roads enable villages to access these.
  • Reduction of isolation: Physical isolation is a key reason for poverty and limited opportunity. All-weather roads break that isolation, especially during monsoons or harsh seasons.
  • Agricultural productivity & diversification: Better access allows adoption of improved inputs, access to extension services, mechanisation, and shift to higher‐value crops.
  • Social inclusion: Connectivity helps integrate marginalised areas, tribal and remote habitations, into mainstream development.
  • Safety and resilience: Better roads support disaster response (in floods, landslides), easier evacuation, access to relief, and mitigation of risk.

The synergy of these channels underlies why rural roads remain a central pillar of rural infrastructure.

2.4 Challenges and remaining gaps

Despite progress, several challenges remain in rural road infrastructure:

  • Maintenance: Often, focus is on new construction; subsequent maintenance of rural roads is weak, leading to deterioration.
  • Quality assurance: In some terrain/remote regions, road quality may fall short of standards due to cost pressures, difficult logistics and weak oversight.
  • Terrain & climate vulnerability: Hilly, tribal and left-wing-extremism affected (LWE) regions lag due to higher costs, security issues, remoteness.
  • Usage linkage: Merely building a road does not guarantee access to services, markets, or changes in livelihoods — the road must link meaningful destinations. Some studies show limited changes in incomes in remote areas despite connectivity. Wikipedia+1
  • Complementary infrastructure: Roads alone do not work unless accompanied by electricity, digital connectivity, market linkages, storage & logistics.
  • Resource allocation & prioritisation: Ensuring that the poorest, most remote habitations are prioritised remains a challenge.

Given these gaps, the next phase of rural roads must emphasise sustainability, connectivity to higher‐order destinations (markets, hubs) and complementary infrastructure.

3. BharatNet: Digital Backbone for Rural India

3.1 The genesis of BharatNet

The BharatNet programme (implemented via the state-owned company Bharat Broadband Network Limited (BBNL)) is India’s flagship rural broadband connectivity network. It traces back to the National Optical Fibre Network (NOFN) approved by the Government of India in October 2011. icrier.org+1

The objective: to connect all 250,000 Gram Panchayats in the country (covering nearly 625,000 villages) by laying optical fibre, wireless links and satellite backhaul, thereby providing high-speed broadband to rural India. Wikipedia+1

The evolution of phases includes:

  • Phase I: Connect ~100,000 Gram Panchayats by December 2017 via optical fibre. Press Information Bureau+1
  • Phase II: Connect the remaining ~150,000 Gram Panchayats using a mix of technologies (optical fibre, satellite, wireless). Press Information Bureau+1
  • Phase III & beyond: Future-proofing, ring architectures, last-mile connectivity, integration with 5G/next generation networks. Press Information Bureau+1

3.2 Progress and current status

By February 2025, BharatNet had connected over 2.12 lakh Gram Panchayats. VARINDIA According to the Department of Telecommunications / Press Information Bureau, as of December 2024: digital inclusion, broadband speeds, cost of data have significantly improved. Press Information Bureau

Notable features of the BharatNet rollout:

  • Use of optical fibre cables (OFC) as the core technology, supplemented by satellite and radio / wireless links in remote / difficult terrain. India Brand Equity Foundation+1
  • Collaboration between central government, state governments and private sector (PPP) for execution and service delivery. India Brand Equity Foundation+1
  • Launch of supporting initiatives like the Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (PMGDISHA) to train rural digital users. archive.opengovasia.com

3.3 Significance of digital connectivity in rural areas

Why does broadband connectivity matter for rural India? Some of the major benefits:

  • Digital inclusion & governance: Rural citizens accessing e-governance, certificates, financial services (DBT), online platforms becomes possible. India Brand Equity Foundation+1
  • Education & tele-learning: Students in villages can access online classes, educational videos, remote tutoring. India Brand Equity Foundation
  • Healthcare & telemedicine: Remote health clinics can link to specialists via broadband, improving health service access. India Brand Equity Foundation
  • Agriculture & livelihoods: Farmers can access weather/market price information, digital payments, agri-services, and rural entrepreneurs can utilise online platforms. ETGovernment.com+1
  • Economic opportunities: Rural small businesses, home-based work, digital livelihoods (remote BPO, content services) become feasible when connectivity is present. India Brand Equity Foundation

3.4 Key challenges in BharatNet’s rollout

Despite its ambitious scope, BharatNet faces several implementation challenges:

  • Last-mile connectivity: While backbone to Gram Panchayat may exist, reaching individual homes, schools, clinics remains difficult. India Brand Equity Foundation+1
  • Usage & adoption: Infrastructure alone doesn’t guarantee service uptake — issues of digital literacy, affordability, content in regional languages hamper meaningful use. ETGovernment.com
  • Delays and cost escalations: Planning glitches, storage of equipment in poor condition in village buildings, slow rollout in some states. The Economic Times
  • Sustainability, business models: Ensuring that rural broadband networks are maintained, financially viable, and used actively remains a challenge. The Pioneer
  • Terrain and geography constraints: Remote, hilly, tribal or LWE-affected regions pose higher implementation costs and operational risks.
  • Coordination across sectors: To yield benefits, digital connectivity must be combined with power supply, devices, skill, and relevant services.

3.5 Learning from other countries

While India has one of the largest rural broadband connectivity programmes globally, lessons from other large developing and developed economies are instructive:

  • In many developed countries (e.g., USA, Australia, European Union), rural broadband deployment involved combinations of public subsidies, universal service obligations, cooperative models, and regulated private sector participation.
  • For example, in Australia the “National Broadband Network” (NBN) involved fibre to the home in many rural areas, satellites for remote zones and wholesale open access model.
  • In Latin American countries (e.g., Brazil, Mexico), programmes linking rural connectivity with digital-literacy training, local content development and social services were emphasised, to ensure bandwidth isn’t just laid but used.
  • The key lessons: backbone alone is not enough; last-mile, devices, local content, digital literacy, business models and services matter as much as the cables.

India’s BharatNet programme, given its scale, must internalise these lessons: infrastructure + adoption + usage = impact.

4. The Synergy: Roads + Digital Connectivity = Rural Transformation

While rural roads and rural broadband are valuable individually, their combined effect can be far greater. Let us explore how synergy works and why both are essential.

4.1 Why both roads and broadband are needed

  • Access complemented by connectivity: A village may be connected by road, but unless there is information connectivity, many opportunities remain un-captured. Similarly, broadband without ease of travel may still limit access to markets, logistics, devices.
  • Physical mobility and digital mobility: Physical roads enable movement of goods, people, services; broadband enables movement of information, finance, services. Together they open a full set of rural opportunities.
  • Markets, supply-chains and digital platforms: A farmer uses a road to transport produce to a collection centre; uses digital connectivity to check prices, find buyers, transact payments. The value chain becomes efficient only when both are present.
  • Health & education hubs: Roads allow students/teachers/health professionals to travel; broadband allows remote classes/tele-medicine. With both, the service network becomes robust.
  • Local economic development: Rural enterprises (food processing, handicrafts, services) may rely on road connectivity for logistics and broadband for digital marketing, e-commerce, administration.
  • Resilience and disaster management: In calamities, roads allow relief movement; broadband allows early warning, coordination, remote monitoring.
  • Reducing rural-urban divide: Physical and digital connectivity together reduce isolation, enabling villages to integrate into larger markets, knowledge networks and governance systems.

Hence, we may view roads as the “legs” of rural connectivity and broadband as the “nervous system” — one transports, the other communicates. Both are required for a healthy, well-connected rural economy.

4.2 Illustrative example – farm to market to digital

Consider a small farmer in a remote village:

  • With an all-weather rural road, he can transport harvest to the nearest mandi (market) in less time, avoid spoilage, reduce costs.
  • With broadband connectivity (via BharatNet), he can check mandi prices online, know demand in other markets, engage with aggregators, perhaps participate in e-markets.
  • He can use mobile payments for receipts, access credit/insurance online, get extension advice via video.
  • On the way back, he may pick up inputs from a town or use e-commerce; he may use digital learning modules for improved agriculture, or mobile health services.

In this way, the combination of road + digital transforms one simple activity into a multi-layered process. Without either, the chain would be weak: if road absent, he cannot reach the mandi; if broadband absent, he misses information, market link, digital payment. The complementarity is clear.

4.3 Rural roads and connectivity: case for an integrated policy

In light of this synergy, rural development strategy must treat road and digital connectivity as co-dependent infrastructure elements, not separate silos. Some aspects to highlight:

  • Planning co-ordination: When villages are being connected by roads, digital connectivity deployment (e.g., laying OFC, wireless towers) should be planned in parallel or in upcoming stages. For instance, road construction often allows easier laying of ducts or conduits for optical fibre or cable.
  • Site selection and hub building: Road hubs (villages, block-headquarters) connected by good roads should be digital anchor points (Gram Panchayat offices, schools, health centres) where BharatNet termination and last-mile distribution happens.
  • Convergence of funding: Rather than separate budgets and schemes, rural road programmes (PMGSY) and rural broadband (BharatNet) should be coordinated to avoid duplication, reduce cost, and increase yield.
  • Maintenance and lifetime costs: Roads and fibre infrastructure both require upkeep; rural policy must incorporate long-term maintenance rather than one-time build.
  • Service ecosystems: For roads, transport services, logistics, mobility infrastructure matter; for broadband, devices, digital literacy, content and services matter. Both must go hand-in-hand for full impact.
  • Monitoring and outcomes: Tracking only number of roads or kilometres laid, or number of Gram Panchayats connected, is insufficient. Monitoring must capture service uptake, usage statistics (for broadband) and mobility improvements (for roads), and socio-economic outcomes (income, education, health).
  • Equity and inclusion: Both roads and broadband must focus on remote, tribal, disadvantaged habitations where connectivity remains weak. These communities often suffer both physical and digital isolation, making combined infrastructure especially critical.

4.4 The India advantage: scale, innovation and integration

India’s rural challenge is huge — more than 600,000 inhabited villages, with large diversity of terrain (plains, hills, deserts, tribal areas). There is therefore both a challenge and an opportunity:

  • Scale: Building hundreds of thousands of kilometres of rural roads, creating rural fibre networks across lakhs of villages.
  • Innovation: Use of new technologies (satellite, wireless last-mile, fibre along rural roads), new financing and PPP models. For example, BharatNet uses optical fibre plus satellite/wireless in difficult terrain. India Brand Equity Foundation
  • Integration: India has the opportunity to tie in roads, broadband, power, transport, agri-markets and digital services under one vision. For example, the synergy between the PMGSY roads and BharatNet broadband can feed into the mission of Digital India. Wikipedia+1

The question is: How well is India exploiting this synergy, and what remains to be done?

5. India’s Position: Progress, Gaps and Lesson-Areas

5.1 What India has achieved

In the area of rural roads (PMGSY):

  • As noted, by August 2025, PMGSY has sanctioned over 1,91,282 rural roads covering ~8.38 lakh km and 12,146 bridges. Completed works are ~7.84 lakh km. Press Information Bureau
  • 99.7% of habitations under PMGSY-I have been connected. Press Information Bureau+1
    In the area of rural broadband (BharatNet):
  • Over 2.12 lakh Gram Panchayats have been connected (February 2025). VARINDIA
  • Broadband speeds: The median mobile broadband speed increased from 1.3 Mbps in March 2014 to ~95.67 Mbps in recent times. Press Information Bureau+1
  • Cost of data has fallen significantly (from ~Rs 269/GB in 2014 to ~Rs 9.08/GB). Press Information Bureau

These numbers reflect the serious commitment of India to rural connectivity. The recognition that infrastructure for rural India must include both roads and broadband is now evident.

5.2 Remaining Gaps & Challenges

However, as with any large infrastructure programme, the devil is in the detail. Some of the gaps are:

  • Last-mile connections: While Gram Panchayats may be connected via BharatNet, last-mile connectivity to individual homes, schools, clinics is still weak. Also, for roads, many linkages to markets, logistic hubs and higher order nodes remain to be consolidated.
  • Usage and impact: Infrastructure per se is necessary but not sufficient. For broadband, many villages may have fibre but low uptake, or lack devices/skills. For roads, having a road does not automatically mean high-value market access or diversification. Some studies show limited income impact in remote zones. Open Knowledge Database+1
  • Terrain / remote areas: Particularly in tribal, hilly, desert or LWE-affected zones, connectivity remains challenging — both physical and digital.
  • Maintenance and sustainability: Both road networks and digital networks require ongoing maintenance; funding, institutional arrangements for upkeep remain weaker in many cases.
  • Institutional coordination: Many infrastructure programmes are managed in silos (road‐department, telecom department) with inadequate coordination for synergy.
  • Digital literacy and device availability: Connectivity means little if people cannot use the services. Digital literacy programmes, affordable devices, local content in regional languages are still major gaps. For example, the article on BharatNet’s last-mile revolution points out that “We’ve built the digital highway, but too many people still don’t know how to drive on it.” ETGovernment.com
  • Business models and private sector participation: Especially for broadband in low‐population-density rural areas, sustaining operations commercially is difficult without subsidies or innovative models. BharatNet must evolve its business model. The Pioneer+1

5.3 Lessons from large developing & developed economies

When comparing with other countries, a few lessons emerge which India can leverage:

  • Holistic connectivity model: Many countries link road, rail, broadband, power and services planning rather than isolated sectoral schemes.
  • Focus on last-mile and usage: Infrastructure reach is only one part; ensuring adoption and usage (digital literacy, devices, content) is equally important.
  • Sustainable financing: In rural broadband especially, long-term sustainability rather than one-time build is key — e.g., requiring maintenance budgets, local operator participation, community models.
  • Monitoring and outcome measurement: Beyond kilometres laid, metrics such as time to reach market, number of online users, digital transactions in villages, income uplift, service uptake must be tracked.
  • Equity-oriented connectivity: Prioritising the most remote, tribal and marginalised habitations; treating connectivity for these as national priority rather than residual.
  • Convergence of infrastructure: Example: In the U.S., broadband funding is bundled with rural electrification, community anchor institutions; in Australia satellite + fibre + wireless combinations for rural broadband.
  • Use of allied technologies: For example, in broadband, TV white space for backhaul in remote zones, satellite for “last mile”. arXiv

India stands in a strong position because of its scale, integrated policy ecosystem (Digital India, National Broadband Mission, PMGSY, GatiShakti), and growing technological and private-sector capabilities.

6 Investments & Funding Needs

1) Rural Roads (PMGSY)

What’s been invested so far (cumulative):

  • As of 31 Dec 2024, ₹3,30,891 crore has been spent under PMGSY (includes state share) across its verticals (PMGSY-I/II/III, RCPLWEA, bridges, etc.). Press Information Bureau

Ongoing/approved envelopes:

  • PMGSY-III: Upgradation target ~1.25 lakh km with an expenditure envelope of ~₹80,250 crore. pmgsy.nic.in
  • PMGSY-IV (FY 2024-25 to 2028-29): Approved outlay ₹70,125 crore (₹49,087.5 cr Centre + ₹21,037.5 cr States) to connect ~25,000 remaining habitations via ~62,500 km of roads. Press Information Bureau+2Projects Today+2

Practical funding outlook:

  • Next 5 years (to FY 2029-30): At minimum, budget the ₹70,125 cr PMGSY-IV outlay; alongside, expect continued PMGSY-III upgradation spends drawn from the ~₹80,250 cr envelope (balance to be utilised varies by state progress). Annual BE/RE typically top up PMGSY; for instance, ~₹19,000 cr was earmarked for FY 2025-26. Together, a realistic five-year requirement is ~₹0.9–1.2 lakh crore, depending on pace of PMGSY-III closures, bridges, LWE roads and maintenance contracts. pmgsy.nic.in+1
  • Next 10 years (to FY 2035): Assuming post-PMGSY-IV consolidation (market-link roads, climate-resilient rebuilds, bridges) and stronger O&M, total ~₹1.8–2.4 lakh crore is a reasonable planning band (includes periodic renewals, vulnerability mitigation in hilly/NE/LWE belts). Note: This is a planning range based on current envelopes and historical annual allocations; exact numbers will track future Cabinet approvals and state co-funding trajectories. (Range reasoned from the PMGSY-III/IV envelopes and recent annual allocations.) Press Information Bureau+2pmgsy.nic.in+2

2) Rural Broadband (BharatNet)

What’s been invested so far:

  • Cabinet-approved funding for BharatNet Phase-I & II: ₹42,068 cr (ex-GST/octroi/local taxes); ₹39,825 cr disbursed up to 31-12-2023. usof.gov.in+1

Approved expansion (last-mile/FTTH):

  • Amended BharatNet Programme (ABP), approved 04-Aug-2023, with an outlay of ₹1.39 lakh crore to provide last-mile fibre-based connectivity to all villages (including ~1.5 crore FTTH in rural areas), with BSNL as Project Management Agency. Press Information Bureau+2Press Information Bureau+2

Practical funding outlook:

  • Next 5 years: The ABP outlay of ₹1.39 lakh cr is the principal funding headroom for completing last-mile to all villages, ring-topology upgrades, rural FTTH/Wi-Fi hotspots and operations kick-off; procurement and awards are underway. Expect majority drawdown within a 3–5 year window depending on package roll-outs and state readiness. ETTelecom.com
  • Next 10 years: Beyond initial rollout, plan for O&M refresh, ring resiliency, CPE/device subsidies for poorest blocks, and uptake programs. A prudent 10-year view keeps the ₹1.39 lakh cr rollout plus recurring O&M/programmatic spends (digital literacy, anchors) that states/Center will budget annually (often via Digital Bharat Nidhi/DBN, erstwhile USOF). Press Information Bureau

Bottom line: By policy commitments already on the books, roads have ~₹0.70 lakh cr locked in for PMGSY-IV (plus PMGSY-III balances), while broadband has ₹1.39 lakh cr for last-mile ABP on top of ~₹0.40 lakh cr already invested in the backbone (Phases I–II). Press Information Bureau+2pmgsy.nic.in+2

7. What India Needs to Do: The Way Forward

Given the above, what should be the roadmap for India to treat rural connectivity (roads + broadband) as a fundamental enabler of rural transformation? Below are key strategic directions.

7.1 Treat rural roads and broadband as co-equal infrastructure priorities

  • Government and states should coordinate planning of rural road upgrades and broadband connectivity roll-out as part of a unified rural infrastructure plan.
  • Where a new road is being laid or upgraded, provisions for digital infrastructure (e.g., fibre conduits, poles, wireless towers) should be included at the same time to reduce future cost and accelerate digital deployment.
  • Conversely, when deploying broadband, link paths should consider areas with good road access so that serviceability, maintenance and last-mile reach are improved.

7.2 Focus on hub-and-spoke models, linking villages to higher-order nodes

  • Rural habitations should not just be connected to each other but to markets, agri-hubs, educational/health hubs, digitally enabled service centres. Roads must lead to these nodes, not end in isolation.
  • Similarly, broadband connectivity should terminate at anchor points (schools, Gram Panchayats, health centres) with spill-over to homes via WiFi, community centres, mobile kiosks.
  • Investment planning should prioritize feeders (farm-to-market roads) and digital “feeder” links (last-mile to homes). PMGSY Phase-III’s emphasis on through routes to markets/hospitals is a step in this direction. Press Information Bureau+1

7.3 Ensure the “usage” layer is built concurrently

  • For roads: ensure transport services, logistics infrastructure, vehicle connectivity, market linkages exist.
  • For broadband: ensure devices (smartphones, tablets), digital literacy programmes (e.g., PMGDISHA), affordable tariffs, local content and applications in agriculture, health, education. For example, the survey on rural internet connectivity emphasises both technology and adoption. arXiv
  • Incentives or funding for local ISPs, community networks, public-private‐community partnerships should be encouraged to serve rural broadband.
  • Digital literacy and women’s inclusion should be emphasised to ensure the infrastructure does not become under-utilised. The article on BharatNet identifies digital literacy as a key opportunity. India Brand Equity Foundation

7.4 Strengthen maintenance, durability and resilience

  • Rural roads must be built and maintained to high technical standards, with monitoring systems, quality assurance and life-cycle maintenance budgets. PMGSY emphasises a three‐tier quality monitoring system. Press Information Bureau
  • Broadband networks must include provisions for equipment refresh, power backup (especially in remote areas), network monitoring and service-level agreements. For example, the mission as of April 2025 outlines operations & maintenance of BharatNet by BSNL under SLA. archive.opengovasia.com
  • Terrain and climate vulnerabilities (floods, landslides) should be factored into both road and broadband infrastructure design, especially in hilly/tribal regions.
  • Disaster resilience: Both infrastructures can serve as lifelines during calamities — ensure redundancy and backup.

7.5 Strengthen data, monitoring and outcome measurement

  • Create integrated dashboards that reflect both physical and digital connectivity progress (e.g., kilometres of rural roads, number of habitations/Gram Panchayats connected by broadband, last‐mile connections, digital usage metrics).
  • Move beyond output metrics (e.g., roads laid, Gram Panchayats connected) to outcome/impact metrics — e.g., reduction in time to reach market, increase in digital transactions per village, increase in school attendance/digital class usage, tele-medicine cases, farmer incomes, rural non-farm employment.
  • Encourage third-party evaluations and academic studies to generate evidence, as in the PMGSY and BharatNet studies cited above.
  • Use GIS, satellite imagery, mobile data analytics to monitor usage, mobility patterns, digital uptake in rural zones.

7.6 Prioritise remote, tribal, marginalised habitations and ensure equity

  • The remaining connectivity gaps often lie in remote, tribal, left-wing-extremism affected (LWE) areas. Special strategies, higher cost norms and targeted funding are needed.
  • Roads and broadband must be provided as a matter of rights, not as after‐thoughts. For example, PMGSY’s RCPLWEA (Road Connectivity Project for LWE Affected Areas) aims at those zones. Press Information Bureau
  • Gender, disability, senior-citizen friendly infrastructure must be designed (ramps, accessible digital interfaces, community help desks).
  • Ensure local communities are engaged in planning (Gram Sabhas), construction and monitoring to ensure ownership and sustainability.

7.7 Promote convergence with other sectors (agriculture, health, education, MSME)

  • The rural roads and broadband infrastructure should not be stand‐alone: they must integrate with the wider ecosystem of rural development—agriculture (farm-to-market linkages, cold-chains, agri-logistics), education (digital classes, e-libraries), health (tele-medicine, health data networks), micro/small enterprises (digital marketing, e-commerce).
  • Example: a village with a good road network and broadband connection is well-placed to host a small agro-processing unit or a home-based digital services centre.
  • At the state/district level, infrastructure departments (roads), telecom departments (broadband), rural development, agriculture, health, education must converge planning and budgeting.

7.8 Leverage technology and innovation

  • For roads: Use green technologies (for example, use of waste materials, local innovation for low-cost durable rural roads), geo-tagging, remote monitoring. PMGSY has sanctioned ~1,66,694 km using new/green technologies (as of August 2025). Press Information Bureau
  • For broadband: Use hybrid architectures — fibre wherever possible; wireless/satellite where terrain difficult; explore TV white space/backhaul solutions in remote areas. arXiv
  • Use digital tools (GIS, IoT) to monitor road condition, traffic flows, broadband network performance, service availability.
  • Explore public-private community partnerships, local digital entrepreneurs, micro-ISPs to drive last-mile broadband and local applications.

7.9 Financing and private sector participation

  • While government funding is critical, sustainable models require private sector and community participation. For broadband especially, sustainment of network operations in low‐density rural areas needs blended financing (public subsidy + private business model) or community networks.
  • For rural roads, involve user communities, local road‐maintenance groups, local contractors, and monitoring mechanisms to ensure cost-effectiveness and longevity.
  • Encourage state governments to explore road‐user charges, community maintenance funds, and digital services monetisation in villages (e.g., digital kiosks).

8. A Comparative Look: India vis-à-vis Other Large Economies

8.1 Developed economies

In developed countries, rural road and broadband connectivity are often near universal, but their focus has shifted to quality, speed, last-mile fibre, rural economic development beyond connectivity.

  • The Rural Access Index (RAI), a global metric, shows high values (>80%) in North America, Europe and Oceania, unlike many developing regions. arXiv
  • For rural broadband, nations like Australia, Canada and parts of Europe deployed national broadband networks combining fibre, wireless and satellite, with open-access wholesale models, and digital literacy/support programmes.
  • Lesson: India can accelerate by focusing not just on coverage but quality, usage, last‐mile, device availabilityand digital service ecosystems.

8.2 Large developing economies

  • In Brazil, Mexico, Indonesia, and parts of Africa, rural connectivity programmes emphasise subsidies, universal service obligations, local community networks, and linking broadband with social/education/health services.
  • Many of these economies stress that connectivity is means to an end, not an end itself. Digital inclusion, service access and economic empowerment are key.
  • For example, Brazil’s “Internet para Todos” pilot included community WiFi at public locations, paired with literacy training; Mexico’s “CFE Telecom” model included utilities leveraging their distribution network.
  • India, given its scale, has an advantage: the ability to roll out infrastructure at unprecedented speed and leverage telecom/IT capabilities. But to match best practices, the focus must shift from just connecting to making connectivity meaningful and productive.

8.3 Lessons for India

  • In the next phase, India should emphasise value over volume: kilometres of roads or Gram Panchayats connected is less important than kilometres that provide meaningful access, villages where broadband leads to measurable service uptake, road+digital corridors that lead to rural economic clusters.
  • India must aim to leapfrog rather than only replicate: designing rural roads and broadband networks that are integrated, resilient, future-proof (e.g., 5G/6G ready, fibre routes along roads) and oriented to services rather than only infrastructure.
  • India should foster local innovation: rural entrepreneurs, digital hubs, agri-logistics centres, community networks. In large developing economies, local adaptation matters.
  • India should adopt monitoring for outcomes, including rigorous evaluations of impact on incomes, health, education, migration, gender inclusion — as many studies in India are beginning to show (for roads and broadband) but more is needed.

9. Case Reflections: Selected Illustrative Instances

9.1 Rural roads in Bihar – recent improvements

For example, under the Mukhyamantri Gramin Sadak Unnayan Yojana in Bihar (a state initiative complementing central programmes) over 2,000 km of rural roads were built in past two years in several districts. This demonstrates state-level acceleration and local adaptation. The Times of India

9.2 Road connectivity in Gajapati (Odisha) – terrain and vulnerability

In Gajapati district (Odisha), heavy rainfall and landslides disrupted a section of rural roads built under PMGSY, indicating terrain vulnerabilities and the need for resilient design and maintenance. The Times of India

9.3 Broadband connectivity & last-mile – BharatNet in rural India

An article on BharatNet’s “last mile revolution” describes how fibre rollout is rewriting possibilities for rural India, but emphasises that “the success will not be judged by infrastructure alone, but by the opportunities it creates—for students, for women, for small businesses, for farmers, and for local governments.” ETGovernment.com

These cases illustrate both the promise and the limitations — the need for sustained use, maintenance, and complementary services.

10. Roadmap for Implementation: Key Strategic Actions – Density Gaps Across States/Regions & How to Close Them

1) Physical network (Rural Roads)

Where gaps persist:

  • The large plains states and densely settled belts (Punjab, Haryana, UP western districts, Tamil Nadu, Kerala) generally exhibit higher rural road density and all-weather connectivity than hilly/Northeastern/tribal/LWE-affected regions, where terrain, low habitation density, and climate risk raise costs and slow execution. PMGSY-IV explicitly targets the ~25,000 still-unconnected habitations—disproportionately in such geographies. Press Information Bureau

What to do:

  • Finish last unconnected habitations (PMGSY-IV) with enhanced cost norms for NE/hill/LWE districts, resilient design (better drainage, slope stabilisation), and dedicated bridges where riverine breaks cause isolation. Press Information Bureau
  • Prioritise “through-routes” to markets/HS schools/PHCs (PMGSY-III logic) so connectivity isn’t a cul-de-sac but a market-link. Track outcomes like travel-time to mandi/PHC, not just km added. pmgsy.nic.in
  • Institutionalise O&M (multi-year maintenance contracts, third-party QA, geotagging), since fragile terrain loses asset value quickly without upkeep. (PMGSY’s quality system exists—expand funding/performance-linked contracts.) Press Information Bureau

2) Digital network (BharatNet)

Where gaps persist:

  • Backbone connectivity to Gram Panchayats is high, but last-mile to households/institutions and actual utilisation vary widely by state. Official DoT/DBN data show state-wise GPs connected and “service-ready” count differing significantly; Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu have strong fibre footprints, while several states have lower GP-ready ratios or lag on FTTH take-up and Wi-Fi hotspots. The Times of India+3usof.gov.in+3Data.gov India+3

What to do:

  • Execute ABP packages with ring topology to remove single-point failures, especially in cyclone/flood/landslide belts; integrate with 4G/5G backhaul where feasible. ETTelecom.com
  • Anchor institutions first (schools, PHCs, Common Service Centres, agriculture mandis), then fan out via community Wi-Fi and micro-ISPs for household FTTH. (ABP targets 1.5 crore rural FTTH; track take-up.) Press Information Bureau
  • Drive usage, not just lit fibre: budget for devices, digital literacy (PMGDISHA), local-language content, and tariff support for poorest Gram Panchayats; otherwise “service-ready” GPs remain under-utilised. usof.gov.in
  • State models matter: Where state SPVs (e.g., AP FiberNet) were aligned with Centre’s BharatNet, performance improved; revivals now aim to re-integrate with ABP and expand to 8–10 lakh active connections. Encourage such Centre-State SPVs with transparent governance. The Times of India

Here is a structured roadmap for policymakers, states, agencies and stakeholders to follow in the coming years to fully leverage rural roads + broadband for rural transformation.

Phase A (Now – 2025)

  • Prioritise remaining unconnected habitations for both roads and broadband (i.e., last ~25,000 habitations under PMGSY-IV). Press Information Bureau+1
  • Map integrated connectivity needs: Identify villages where road connectivity exists but broadband is weak, and vice-versa; map clusters of villages to form rural hubs.
  • In all new rural road projects, include digital infrastructure conduits/poles to support fibre/last-mile at the same time.
  • Launch targeted digital literacy programmes in areas newly connected via BharatNet; ensure devices and service packages (smartphones, tablets) are affordable.
  • Adopt rural road quality standards adapted to terrain + climate; deploy monitoring via geotagging and remote sensing; allocate maintenance budgets.
  • Strengthen last-mile broadband access via community networks, WiFi hotspots in schools/health centres, local entrepreneurs.

Phase B (2025-30)

  • Build “Connectivity Enhancement Corridors” in rural areas: identify routes (roads) that link clusters of villages to a nearby town/police station/market and ensure along those routes broadband backbone (via fibre) is laid.
  • Develop rural digital service hubs: leverage roads + broadband to set up multi-service centres in villages (education/tele-medicine/market info/skill-training).
  • Encourage rural entrepreneurs: e-commerce, digital services, agro-processing units in villages that are well connected physically and digitally.
  • Monitor and evaluate: undertake rigorous impact studies (income growth, market access reduction in travel time, digital service uptake) of combined roads+digital connectivity.
  • Promote convergence: road/telecom/power/agrilogistics departments coordinate budgets and planning under a unified mission (e.g., Align with GatiShakti National Master Plan).
  • Strengthen resilience: Build roads and broadband infrastructure to withstand climate shocks, use disaster-resilient design, power backup, remote monitoring.

Phase C (2030 and beyond)

  • Move to “Smart Rural Villages”: villages where roads are durable, broadband is ultra-high speed (≥100 Mbps), local services (health, education, digital commerce) are online and integrated.
  • Explore 5G/6G rural network models on top of BharatNet backbone, and autonomous transport/tele-health/remote education services.
  • Use data analytics and digital twins for rural infrastructure planning — e.g., combine road-traffic, broadband usage, mobility, agriculture flows into rural infrastructure intelligence.
  • Global integration: villages become connected not only to Indian markets but global value chains via digital platforms, enabled by both road/logistics connectivity and broadband.
  • Institutionalise maintenance, upgrades, and technological refresh as business-as-usual rather than one-time missions.

Quick diagnostic

  • Road density parity test: % of habitations with all-weather access + average travel time to nearest mandi/PHC/HS school. Use PMGSY-III/IV dashboards to spot districts still >45 min from these nodes; prioritise them. pmgsy.nic.in+1
  • Broadband utilisation test: For each GP: “service-ready (Y/N)”, active bandwidth, # FTTH, # public Wi-Fi hotspots, avg monthly data usage; states with low usage despite fibre should switch to VLE-led last-mile and device/digital-literacy support. usof.gov.in

10. Conclusion

The journey of rural India’s infrastructure transformation is at a critical juncture. On one hand, substantial progress has been achieved: the PMGSY has connected the vast majority of eligible habitations with all-weather roads, and the BharatNet programme has connected a large number of Gram Panchayats to high-speed broadband. On the other hand, the evolving rural economy demands not just connectivity—but connectivity that works, connectivity that is used, connectivity that leads to livelihoods, services and inclusion.

In that sense, rural roads and BharatNet are not separate infrastructure strands—they together form the infrastructure backbone of rural transformation. Roads open up mobility; broadband opens up opportunity. The interplay of both can unlock mobility of goods, people and services, digital empowerment, inclusive growth, rural non-farm employment, women’s inclusion, improved health and education outcomes, and eventual rural resilience.

India, as one of the fastest-growing large economies, cannot afford to leave rural areas behind. The rural-urban divide narrows when rural citizens can access markets, services and knowledge at parity. The vision of an inclusive, connected rural India requires that every habitation has both a reliable road link and meaningful broadband connectivity, and that these are reinforced by service ecosystems, devices, digital literacy and livelihood linkages.

Moving ahead, India must shift its focus from outcome by infrastructure count to outcome by usage, livelihood impact and inclusion. The roads must be durable, the broadband must be fast and adopted, but above all, the rural citizen must feel that “I am connected, I can move, I can access, I can earn, I can learn”.

In summary: if roads are the tracks on which rural India moves, BharatNet is the rail of information and services that carries the cargo of growth. Together, they will form the backbone that lifts rural India into the 21st-century development fold.

References

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